India on the Eve of the British Conquest

Introduction: By the mid-18th century, India was a land of multiple power centers, with the Mughal Empire in decline and various regional states rising to prominence. The British East India Company, initially a trading enterprise, was becoming increasingly involved in Indian politics. The weakening of the Mughal authority created a power vacuum, which the British exploited to establish their rule.

Decline of the Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire, once a formidable force, began declining after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. His successors were weak rulers, leading to:

• Court intrigues and factional struggles.
• Financial instability due to continuous wars.
• Loss of control over regional governors and military commanders.

The empire was further weakened by external invasions, such as those by Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali in the mid-18th century, which resulted in the plundering of Delhi and significant political instability.

Rise of Regional States

As Mughal authority declined, several independent and semi-independent states emerged. These states can be categorized as follows:

1. Successor States (Former Mughal Provinces)

These states were initially governed by Mughal officials but later functioned independently while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor.

• Hyderabad: Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, Hyderabad was constantly engaged in conflicts with the Marathas and internal power struggles.
• Awadh: Established by Sa’adat Khan in 1722, Awadh was an economically prosperous region, with a well-organized revenue system that favored local bankers and traders.
• Bengal: Under Murshid Quli Khan, Bengal became an autonomous state with a strong economic base, largely due to trade and agriculture.

2. New Independent States

Some regions completely broke away from the Mughal Empire, forming independent kingdoms with their own administrative and military systems.

• Marathas: Led by the Peshwas, the Marathas expanded their territory across India and challenged both the Mughals and European powers. However, their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) weakened them significantly.
• Sikhs: Under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh and later Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs established a strong rule in Punjab.
• Jats: Originally a peasant-based group, the Jats became powerful under leaders like Churaman and Jawahir Singh, controlling areas in present-day Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.

3. Southern Kingdoms

• Mysore: Under Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, Mysore became a formidable military power, resisting British expansion.
• Travancore: Led by Martanda Varma, Travancore expanded its influence and modernized its military.

Economic Conditions: 

India was economically prosperous, with a flourishing trade network connecting it to Europe, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Key economic features included:

• Agriculture as the primary occupation, with well-developed irrigation systems.
• Thriving textile, handicraft, and metal industries, particularly in Bengal and Gujarat.
• A strong banking system dominated by merchant families and moneylenders.
• Foreign trade controlled by European companies, including the British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese.

European Presence and Conflicts

By the 18th century, several European powers had established trading posts in India. The British and the French were the dominant rivals, leading to multiple conflicts:

• The Carnatic Wars (1746–1763): A series of battles between the British and French for dominance in South India, eventually won by the British.
• The Battle of Plassey (1757): Marked the beginning of British political control in India after Robert Clive defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah of Bengal.
• The Battle of Buxar (1764): Strengthened British authority, leading to the British gaining control over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa through the Diwani rights granted by the Mughal emperor.

Conclusion

On the eve of the British conquest, India was politically fragmented, economically vibrant, but vulnerable to external manipulation. The British East India Company, leveraging military superiority, diplomacy, and economic control, gradually established dominance. By the late 18th century, British expansion had begun transforming India’s political and economic landscape, laying the foundation for colonial rule.