THE SANGAM AGE

Development of Early South India

• The historical period in South India began when large rural communities started settling down and practicing agriculture using iron tools.
• Over time, this led to the formation of kingdoms, the rise of social classes, the use of writing, literature, and metal coins.
• However, these developments did not happen in a straight line. In southernmost India, especially in the Kaveri delta, these changes became significant only around 2nd century BCE.

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Megalithic Culture (1200 BCE – 300 BCE)

• After the Neolithic Age, which was marked by stone tools, the Megalithic period followed.
• The people of this time are called Megalith builders because they built graves (burial sites) covered with large stones.
• These graves provide important insights into their lives:
  ✔️ First iron tools found in South India were excavated from these sites.
  ✔️ Pottery with black and red designs was common.
  ✔️ Graves contained human skeletons, pottery, iron tools, and grains.
  ✔️ Some of the iron tools found include arrowheads, spearheads, tridents (linked to Shiva), hoes, and sickles.
  ✔️ More weapons were found than farming tools, indicating that agriculture was not well-developed.
  ✔️ They cultivated paddy (rice) and ragi (millet) but farming was limited.
  ✔️ They mostly lived in hilly or upland areas rather than fertile plains.
  ✔️ Megalithic culture was most common in eastern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
  ✔️ The Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras (Keralaputras) mentioned in Ashoka’s inscriptions are believed to have been from the later phase of the Megalithic culture.

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Sangam Age (3rd Century BCE – 3rd Century CE)

• The Sangam Age refers to a time in ancient South India when a large number of Tamil poems were written.
• There were three Sangams (Muchchangams), which were gatherings of Tamil poets under the Pandya rulers.
• The three major ruling dynasties of this period were the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, collectively known as Tamilakam.

✔️ Main sources of knowledge about these kingdoms come from Sangam literature.
✔️ The Sangams were believed to have lasted for 9,990 years, involving 8,598 poets and 197 Pandya kings as patrons.
✔️ Three Sangams were held in different locations:

• 1st Sangam – Old Madurai (Lemurai)
• 2nd Sangam – Kapadapuram (Alovai)
• 3rd Sangam – New Madurai

✔️ Sangam literature covered two major themes: Love and War (secular in nature).
✔️ It is divided into two categories:

• Narrative Literature – Heroic poetry that glorified wars and warriors. It also described state formation in South India.
• Didactic Literature – Moral and ethical teachings. Examples include Tirukkural and Naladiyar.

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Famous Sangam Literature Works

1️⃣ Tolkappiyam – The earliest Tamil text written by Tolkappiyar, mainly about Tamil grammar but also describes society and economy.
2️⃣ Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) – Includes Ainkurunuru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal, and Pandiruppu.
3️⃣ Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) – Includes Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, etc.
4️⃣ Pathinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works) – Most famous text is Tirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar, which gives moral teachings.
5️⃣ Five Tamil Epics:

• Silappathikaram – Written by Ilango Adigal
• Manimegalai – Written by Sittalai Sattanar
• Jivaka Chintamani – Written by Tirutakkatevar
• Valayapathi – Written by Nathakuthanaar
• Kundalakesi – Written by a Tamil Jain ascetic

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Tamilakam: Society and Economy

• Tamilakam stretched from the Tirupati hills to Kanyakumari.
• The three major dynasties – Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas – frequently fought for power.
• The region was divided into five ecological zones (Tinais), each having its own economy and lifestyle:

✔️ Kurinji (Hilly region) – Hunting and gathering
✔️ Mullai (Forests and grasslands) – Animal husbandry
✔️ Marudam (Fertile plains) – Agriculture
✔️ Neital (Coastal areas) – Fishing and salt production
✔️ Palai (Arid zones) – Raiding and plundering

Here’s a simplified and detailed version of the information:

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South Indian Dynasties

In ancient South India, three major dynasties ruled different regions: Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Each had its own territory, capital, emblem, and famous rulers.

Chera Dynasty

• Region: The Cheras controlled most of present-day Kerala.
• Capital: Their capital was Vanji.
• Emblem: The bow and arrow symbolized their rule.
• Prominent Ruler:
  • Senguttuvan (2nd century CE) was a well-known Chera king.
  • He led a military expedition to the Himalayas and defeated several North Indian rulers.
  • Introduced the Pattini cult (worship of Kannagi, the ideal wife).
  • First South Indian king to send an ambassador to China.
  • Silappathikaram, an ancient Tamil epic, records his military achievements.
• Trade & Economy:
  • Musiri and Tondi were major ports used for trade.

Chola Dynasty

• Region: The Cholas ruled parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, including Tiruchirapalli, Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, and Karaikal.
• Capital: Initially, it was Uraiyur, later moved to Puhar (Poompuhar).
• Emblem: The tiger was their symbol.
• Prominent Ruler:
  • Karikala Chola was a famous ruler.
  • He won the Battle of Venni, defeating the Cheras, Pandyas, and 11 minor chieftains.
  • Fought the Battle of Vahaipparandalai.
  • Trade and agriculture thrived under his rule.
  • Built irrigation tanks near the Kaveri River to expand farming.
  • Pattinappalai, a Tamil poem, describes his life and achievements.

Pandya Dynasty

• Region: The Pandyas ruled southern Tamil Nadu.
• Capital: Their capital was Madurai.
• Emblem: Their symbol was the carp (a type of fish).
• Prominent Ruler:
  • Neduncheliyan was a well-known Pandya king.
  • Also called Aryappadai Kadantha Nedunchezhiyan.
• Key Facts:
  • The famous Tamil epic Silappathikaram mentions that Madurai was burnt and destroyed due to the curse of Kannagi.
  • Korkai, a seaport, was an important trade center.
  • The poem Madurai Kanji by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the city’s economy and society.

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Sangam Age (3rd Century BCE – 3rd Century CE)

The Sangam Age was an important period in South Indian history. It was named after the Sangams, which were literary assemblies of Tamil poets under royal patronage.

Politics & Administration

• Government: The kingdoms were ruled by hereditary monarchs (kingship passed from father to son).
• Kingdom Division: The land was divided into smaller units:
  • Mandalam (Province)
  • Nadu (District)
  • Ur (Town)
  • Perur (Big village)
  • Sirur (Small village)
• King’s Role: The king, called Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan, or Iraivan, was the supreme authority.
• Council: The king had five councils to help him govern.
  • Key officials included:
    • Amaichar (Ministers)
    • Athanar (Priests)
    • Dutar (Envoys)
    • Senapatiyar (Military commanders)
    • Orrar (Spies)
• Military: Every ruler had a well-organized army.
• Revenue System: The government collected taxes from land, trade, and other sources:
  • Karai: Land tax
  • Ulgu: Customs duty (tax on imports & exports)
  • Iravu: Extra demand (forced gifts from people)
  • Irai: Tribute paid by smaller rulers
  • Variyar: Tax collectors

Economy

• Agriculture, trade, and industry flourished during the Sangam Age.
• Handicrafts like weaving, metalwork, carpentry, shipbuilding, and jewelry-making were common.
• Trade (Import & Export):
  • Exports: Cotton, glass beads, pearls, sandalwood, black pepper (called “Yavanapriya”), animals, birds.
  • Imports: Gold, silver, coral, wine, olive oil, dried fruits, copper, tin, medicine, and even slaves.
• Roman Connection:
  • Many Roman gold and silver coins from emperors like Augustus, Tiberius, and Nero were found in Tamil Nadu, proving extensive trade.
  • Roman writer Pliny mentioned that a huge amount of gold and silver was spent on Indian goods.
  • Ptolemy and Strabo also wrote about Rome’s trade with India.
• Major Ports:
  • Puhar (a key port city for international trade).
  • Other important ports: Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu, Marakkanam.

Society

• Social Classes:
  • Arasars (Ruling Class)
  • Vellalars (Farmers)
  • Vanigars (Traders & Merchants)
  • Athanars (Priests)
  • Kadasiyars (Lower class)
• Tribes: Indigenous tribes like Todas, Irulas, Nagas, and Vedars lived during this period.
• Women in Society:
  • Women had high status in some cases and were respected for their courage and intelligence.
  • Famous female poets: Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar.
  • Women had the right to choose their partners, but widows suffered hardships.
  • Sati (self-immolation by widows) was practiced in some upper-class families.

Religion & Culture

• Main Deities:
  • Murugan (most important god)
  • Nadu Kal (Hero Stones) were erected to honor brave soldiers.
• Sangam Literature mentions five types of lands, each linked to a deity and lifestyle:
  • Kurinji (Mountains) – Murugan (Hunting & warfare)
  • Mullai (Forests & Pastures) – Vishnu (Cattle-rearing & peaceful life)
  • Marudam (Plains & Farming lands) – Indra (Agriculture & prosperity)
  • Neithal (Seashores & Fishing villages) – Varuna (Fishing & salt-making)
  • Palai (Deserts & Dry lands) – Korravai (Raiding & plundering)
• Jainism & Buddhism also spread during this period.

The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas were the three major dynasties of ancient South India. They developed strong political systems, efficient administration, thriving trade networks, and rich cultural traditions. The Sangam Age was a golden period of literature, trade, and social development. Tamil society was diverse, with a blend of monarchy, trade, religion, and a structured class system.