Vedic Culture 

Vedic Culture: A New Civilization Emerges

• Around 1900 BCE, the Harappan civilization started to decline, and small rural settlements began appearing.
• This period saw the rise of the Aryans, who gradually became dominant in the region where the Harappans once lived.
• The earliest traces of the Rigvedic period are estimated to be around 1500 BCE. It is believed that the Aryans migrated from Central Asia into the Indian subcontinent.
• The Vedic Age is divided into two phases:
  1. Early Vedic Period (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE) – Aryans lived mainly in the Indus region (referred to as the Sapta Sindhu in the Rigveda).
  2. Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE – 600 BCE) – Aryans moved further east towards the Gangetic Plains. Large kingdoms started to develop.

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Evidence of Aryan Migration

• Genetic studies suggest that a specific M17 gene marker, common among 40% of Central Asian people, is also found in 35% of people from North India (Delhi region).
• Many linguistic similarities exist between Indian and European languages, indicating a shared origin. For example, “Duhter” in Sanskrit is similar to “Daughter” in English.
• Ancient texts from Turkey (Hittite culture) mention “Inar,” which resembles the Vedic god Indra. Similarly, Mesopotamian inscriptions mention “Suyyash & Maruttash,” which are similar to Surya & Marut in Vedic texts.
• Archaeological evidence of migration comes from the Andronovo culture in Southern Siberia (flourished around 2000 BCE).
• It is believed that Aryans traveled from Siberia to North of the Hindukush mountains, then entered India.
• However, there are different theories about the Aryan origin. For example, Bal Gangadhar Tilak suggested that Aryans came from the Arctic region.

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Geographical Expansion of Vedic Aryans

1. Early Vedic Period (Sapta Sindhu Region)
   • Aryans first settled in Sapta Sindhu (the land of seven rivers), which included:
     • Sindhu (Indus)
     • Vitasta (Jhelum)
     • Askini (Chenab)
     • Parushni (Ravi)
     • Vipasha (Beas)
     • Sutudri (Satluj)
     • Saraswati (a river mentioned in Vedic texts, now believed to be lost)
2. Later Vedic Period
   • Over time, Aryans moved eastward and settled in the Kosala region (Uttar Pradesh) and Videha (North Bihar).

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Vedic Literature: Sacred Knowledge

• The word “Veda” means sacred knowledge. Vedic literature is divided into two categories:
  1. Mantra Texts – Includes the four Vedas
  2. Brahmana Texts – Explain Vedic rituals and sacrifices

The Four Vedas

1. Rigveda – Oldest Veda, contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas. Recently recognized by UNESCO as part of World Heritage.
2. Samaveda – Collection of hymns (mostly from Rigveda) arranged in a musical form for chanting during sacrifices. It also includes Dhrupad Raga, later made famous by Tansen. Its Upveda (secondary text) is Gandharva Veda (related to music and dance).
3. Yajurveda – Focuses on rituals and sacrifices, both public and personal.
4. Atharvaveda – Contains spells and charms to ward off evil and cure diseases.

Other Vedic Texts

• Brahmanas – Explain the meaning of mantras and describe sacrificial rituals.
• Aranyakas – Also called “forest treaties”, they provide deeper interpretations of Vedic rituals.
• Upanishads – Also called “Vedanta” (meaning the “end of the Vedas”), these texts focus on philosophy, spirituality, and self-realization. There are 108 Upanishads, out of which 13 are the most significant.
• The Mandukya Upanishad contains the famous phrase “Satyameva Jayate” (Truth alone triumphs).

Here’s a simplified and detailed paraphrase of the Early Vedic or Rigvedic Period (1500–1000 BCE):

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Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period) – 1500 BCE to 1000 BCE

Economy in the Early Vedic Period

• Pastoral Lifestyle: The Rigvedic people were mostly pastoralists, meaning they depended on animals, especially cattle rearing, for their livelihood.
• Domesticated Animals: They raised cows, sheep, goats, and horses, using them for milk, meat, and hides.
• Significance of Cows:
  • People who respected and valued cows were called Gopajanya.
  • Many words in their language came from “Go” (meaning cow), showing the importance of cattle.
  • A wealthy person was called Gomat, meaning someone who owned many cows.
  • A daughter was referred to as Duhitri, which means “one who milks the cows.”
  • The word “Gaveshana” originally meant “search for cows,” but it also referred to battles, as many fights were over cattle.
• Agriculture:
  • Though cattle-rearing was their main activity, they also practiced farming.
  • The primary crop they grew was Yava (modern barley), which was a general term for all cereals.
• Trade & Exchange:
  • There was no currency in the early period; people used the barter system (exchanging goods without money).
  • Cows were the most valuable item in trade.
  • Gold coins (Nishka) were introduced later for large transactions.
• Use of Land & Metals:
  • With the discovery and use of iron, they were able to clear forests and expand agricultural land.
  • Carpentry was a profitable occupation because of the availability of wood from cleared forests.
  • Metalworkers made items using copper, bronze, and iron.
  • Spinning and Weaving were important occupations, and both cotton and woolen fabrics were produced.
  • Jewelry Making: Goldsmiths crafted ornaments from gold and other metals.

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Society in the Early Vedic Period

• Family Structure:
  • The basic family unit was called “Kula”, and society was patriarchal, meaning men were the head of the family.
  • Marriage:
    • People married after reaching adulthood.
    • After marriage, the woman moved to her husband’s house.
    • Child marriage was not practiced, and Sati (widow burning) did not exist.
  • Monogamy (one husband, one wife) was the common practice, though chiefs (leaders) sometimes had multiple wives (polygamy).
• Social Groups:
  • Several families together formed a clan (Vis).
  • Multiple clans combined to form a tribe (Jana), which was the largest social unit.
• Equality & Social Classes:
  • Society was simple and mostly equal; there were no caste divisions in the early Vedic period.
  • Occupation was not based on birth, meaning people could choose their profession.
• Racial & Linguistic Differences:
  • The Aryans were fair-skinned and spoke the Vedic Sanskrit language.
  • The indigenous non-Aryan people (Dasas) were darker-skinned and spoke different languages.
  • The Rigveda mentions two groups: Arya Varna (Aryan race) and Dasa Varna (slaves).
  • The Shudra (servant class) only emerged towards the end of the Rigvedic period.
• Dietary Habits:
  • Eating cow’s meat was prohibited, though they consumed other meats and dairy products.
• Role of Women:
  • Women were respected and had equal opportunities for education, spirituality, and intellectual development.
  • Women could choose their husbands and marry at a proper age.
  • They participated in tribal assemblies like Sabha and Samiti (public decision-making meetings).
  • Famous Women Poets of the Rigvedic period included Apala, Vishwavara, Ghosa, and Lopamudra.

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Religion in the Early Vedic Period

• Purpose of Worship:
  • People prayed to gods for protection and material wealth.
  • There were no temples or idol worship.
  • Worship mainly involved chanting hymns, reciting prayers, and performing sacrifices (yajnas).
• Gods & Deities:
  • Most gods were male, reflecting a patriarchal society.
  • Female goddesses existed but had a secondary role (e.g., Pusan, Saraswati, and Prithvi).
  • Indra was the most frequently mentioned god in the Rigveda.
  • People worshipped natural forces like:
    • Prithvi (Earth)
    • Agni (Fire)
    • Vayu (Wind)
    • Varuna (Rain)
    • Indra (Thunder)
  • Other Deities:
    • Aditi & Usha – Female deities
    • Pusan – God of roads, cattle, and herdsmen

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Political System in the Early Vedic Period

• Villages & Administration:
  • Several families formed a village (Grama).
  • A group of villages was called Visu.
  • The head of Visu was known as Vishayapati.
• Tribal Leadership:
  • The main social unit of the Aryans was the Jana (tribe).
  • The chief (political leader) of the tribe was called Rajan.
• Assemblies & Decision Making:
  • The society had four main assemblies:
    1. Sabha – An advisory council for decision-making
    2. Samiti – An open assembly for public discussions
    3. Vidhata – The oldest assembly, handling secular, religious, and military matters
    4. Gana – A council of elders and warriors
  • Vidhata was the most important because it dealt with both religious and political matters.
• Election of Leaders:
  • The king (Rajan) was not chosen by birth; instead, he was elected by the tribe.
• Taxes & Contributions:
  • There was no fixed tax system.
  • People gave voluntary contributions called Bali to the chief on special occasions.
• Women in Politics:
  • Women could attend the Sabha and Vidhata assemblies, showing their role in decision-making.

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Conclusion

The Early Vedic Period was a time of pastoral life, simple living, and an egalitarian (equal) society. People worshipped natural forces, lived in tribes, and had a flexible class system. Women enjoyed a high status and took part in social and political affairs. Over time, agriculture, trade, and iron tools became more important, setting the stage for the more structured society of the Later Vedic Period.

Here’s a simplified and detailed paraphrase of the Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE):

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Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE – 600 BCE)

Economic Changes

• Shift to Agriculture:
  • Farming became the main occupation, replacing the earlier focus on cattle-rearing.
  • New animals like buffaloes and oxen were domesticated to help in plowing fields.
• Crops:
  • While barley was the main crop in the Early Vedic period, now people cultivated wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millets, and sugarcane.
• Use of Iron:
  • The biggest change in this period was the widespread use of iron (around 1000 BCE).
  • Iron tools made it easier to clear forests, allowing people to expand farmland.
• Expansion Towards the East:
  • Aryans moved eastward and settled in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna river region.
  • This led to an increase in larger and more permanent settlements.
• Urban Development:
  • Small urban centers began to appear, although they were still in early stages.
• Growth of Professions:
  • Many new occupations developed, including:
    • Metalworking
    • Leatherwork
    • Carpentry
    • Pottery
• Trade & Commerce:
  • People started trading with foreign lands, including Babylon.
  • A new class of hereditary merchants (Vaniya) emerged.
  • Coins like Satamana and Krishnala (gold and silver) were used alongside barter trade.

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Social Changes

• Family & Marriage:
  • The joint family system became more common, with three or four generations living together.
  • Monogamy (one husband, one wife) was preferred, but polygamy (multiple wives) became more common among elites.
  • The Gotra system (clan-based identity) was introduced.
• Varna System (Caste System) Strengthens:
  • Society became more structured and hierarchical with four main varnas (castes):
    1. Brahmanas – Priests, scholars, and teachers
    2. Kshatriyas – Warriors and rulers
    3. Vaishyas – Farmers, traders, and artisans
    4. Shudras – Servants and laborers (lowest rank in society)
  • The Brahmanas (priests) became more powerful as religious rituals and sacrifices became more frequent.
  • Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors) maintained political control.
  • Vaishyas (traders and farmers) formed the largest group and were involved in agriculture, trade, and handicrafts.
  • Shudras were at the bottom of the social order and were denied education (no Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony for them).
• The Ashrama System (Four Stages of Life) Developed:
  • Brahmacharya – Student life (learning scriptures and knowledge)
  • Grihastha – Householder life (family and work responsibilities)
  • Vanaprastha – Hermitage stage (retirement from worldly affairs)
  • Sanyasa – Renunciation (spiritual liberation, detachment from life)
• Status of Women Declined:
  • Women lost their earlier rights to participate in assemblies (Sabha and Samiti).
  • Child marriage became common.
  • Some texts, like the Aitareya Brahmana, even described daughters as a burden.

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Religious Changes

• Changes in Deities & Worship:
  • Some early Vedic gods lost importance, such as Indra and Agni.
  • New gods became popular, including:
    • Prajapati (creator god)
    • Vishnu (protector, though his avatars were not mentioned yet)
    • Rudra (early form of Shiva)
• Increase in Rituals & Sacrifices:
  • The number and size of yajnas (sacrifices) increased significantly.
  • Many animals, especially cows, were sacrificed as part of religious rituals.
  • These extravagant sacrifices created dissatisfaction among people, leading to the rise of new religions like Buddhism and Jainism.

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Political Changes

• Kings Became More Powerful:
  • In the Early Vedic period, the tribal chief (Rajan) was elected, but now kingship became hereditary (passed from father to son).
  • Kings were seen as divine figures, and their rule was justified through religious texts.
• Decline of Tribal Assemblies:
  • The influence of Sabha and Samiti (tribal councils) declined.
  • Kings appointed officials to help in administration, replacing the earlier system of public decision-making.
• Development of Army:
  • Standing armies were formed, making military strength an important aspect of ruling.
• Introduction of Taxes:
  • People now had to pay taxes, including:
    • Bali – A voluntary gift (earlier) but later became a mandatory tax
    • Shulka – Trade tax
    • Bhaga – A share of agricultural produce taken by the king
• Important Yajnas (Royal Rituals):
  • Ashwamedha Yajna (Horse Sacrifice):
    • A sacred horse was released to roam freely; if other rulers did not stop it, they accepted the supremacy of the king performing the ritual.
  • Vajapeya Yajna:
    • A complex ritual involving horse chariot races to prove royal power.
  • Rajasuya Yajna:
    • A coronation ritual to legitimize the king’s rule.
  • These rituals helped the king assert authority over his people and territory.

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Important Officials in the Later Vedic Period

Title	Role
Purohita	Chief Priest, advisor to the king
Senani	Supreme Commander of the army
Vrajapati	Officer in charge of pasture lands
Jivagribha	Police Officer
Madhyamasi	Mediator in disputes
Bhagadugha	Revenue Collector
Sangrahitri	Treasurer
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Suta	Charioteer and court musician

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Conclusion

The Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE) saw major social, economic, religious, and political transformations.

• Agriculture became the backbone of the economy, supported by the use of iron tools.
• Society became more hierarchical, with a rigid caste system and restrictions on lower classes and women.
• Religion became complex, focusing on rituals and sacrifices, leading to dissatisfaction and later the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism.
• Kingship became hereditary, with taxation, a standing army, and official administration developing.

This period laid the foundation for early kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) and classical Indian civilization.